Working Hours

Asis Ranjan Sengupta

Slavery was the norm for feudal lords in exploitation of majority for accumulation of wealth for a handful few. Among other modes of exploitation was the long, long stretch of working hours that too in the days when all types of work that added value to the bounty of nature were mostly manual. All early literatures graphically describe the woes of malnourished slaves, toiling hard without rest or entertainment, deprived of family lives.

The Bourgeois Democratic Revolution of 18th century, ushered in Europe, the cradle of Industrial revolution, only changed the mode of exploitation. The manual labour was replaced by production with the aid of machines, for the accumulation of Capital for the new and emerging Capitalist class. But though the mode of production changed in society, the exploitation of labour, remained the same, of course, in a different way. The new slavery only changed the mode, not the basic norm of long stretching working hours, no rest, no entertainment, no social life, nothing. In this context, the historic Hay Market revolt at Chicago, USA (May1886), marked the protest against the unlimited working hours. At the cost of sweat and blood of workers, the famous 8­hour working day with 48-hours a week, was framed, and implemented. This much history is known to all.

Not that, this new law and practice was followed every­where, but the guiding principle came into existence from that victory. During First and Second World Wars, the rise and founding of Communist nations like Russia and China, sent shockwaves through the spines of Capitalist world. Then the theory of welfare state gained momentum. According to the new concept, the role of State is to be that of a welfare mechanism, not a tool of exploitation in the hands of Capitalists. Thus, Capitalism wore the mask of benefactor. Among those shows of philanthropy were limited working hours, provision for rest, leisure, entertainment, family and social life, medical assis­tance, retirement benefits etc.

But from the '80s, the communist and socialist world started showing cracks, decay, bankruptcy, the Soviet Russia dissolved, and China adopted the capitalist path of 'socialism'. From this stage, the capitalist world shed the mask of welfare state, and in the name of privatisation, liberalisation and globalisation spree, welfare norms for workforce were relaxed for the benefit of giant global corporate houses. More production, more GDP envisage more exploitation of workforce, for usurping the surplus value produced. This background must be kept in mind while discussing the working-hour debate which is attracting wide attention at present across the globe.

With the fall of Soviet Russia and switch over of Communist China to capitalist road, the labour-capital relations became complex. China opened up doors to the European and American capitalist giants, and invited them to invest in China, with an active assurance of all out cooperation and so-called 'ease of doing business' without any trade union or labour welfare hassles, and minimum wages with maximum skill. The communist government realised that it was not possible for them to create capital or market for the produce, as China was still a poor country. So they very intelligently, invited global capital in order to catch global market, and to become a parallel capitalist growth centre, based on Dollar currency. And their trick clicked. Soon the Multi-National Corporates, took advantage of the globalisation wave, and shifted their labour intensive, hazardous and pollutant industries to China, to avoid and overcome all operational difficulties, achieve low cost of production, and maximisation of profits. China, by now an authoritarian state created huge labour market, educated their workforce to generate mammoth value addition to products, without any rights of working hours, leisure. But the aspect of social welfare was assuredly taken care of by the government, in their way. By the new law of free investment, China created massive infrastructural developments to dazzle the gaze of citizens as well as global population to create an aura of growth. But the story behind this show of development is again shady and shabby.

China first introduced the concept of 996 working hours. Now what is this 996? It is 9 am to 9 pm, 6 days, which means, 12 x6 = 72 working hours a week. But this is official schedule; beyond this is also the practice of over working hours, as per need of the employer. China is an authoritarian state, wearing the cloak of communism, with little scope for protest or agitation. Moreover, the Chinese people in general are hard working and disciplined. So, this model soon caught the fascination of capitalists, and they started demanding Chinese model of working hours, all over the third world (now known as global south, a new coinage), countries, who aspire to grow in Chinese model of global exploitation of workers.

It is necessary to understand the recent working hour debate raised by certain Indian corporate giants like Infosys or Larsen & Tubro, in this historic and contemporary perspective. In a sense, this debate is meaningless in India, as according to official data, the unorganised sector comprises nearly 44 crore workers, which is 90% of total workforce. And for them, there is no labour law as such. The working hour rules apply to the organised sector only and that too, for office employees. In fac­tories, gone are the days of restricted working hours, as barring a few big Public Sector and big private industries, most of the shop floor jobs have been outsourced to external agencies, and contractual workers hired through agencies, only to be fired at the mercy of recruiters. In service sector industries like Banks or Insurance companies, all of which are now totally computerised, all key jobs are assigned to software firms who again engage contract workers through agencies. In big industries too, it is the same story of all the works being automated and robotised, leaving only hazardous manual jobs to workers hired through agencies, and at the mercy of hirers lest they should be fired any moment.

The Medium and Small Manufacturing Enterprises (MSME) are manned by a limited number of workers. So, the owners who always struggle for survival, refuse to grant any welfare benefits or adhere to working hour schedule. Previously, units employing 100 workers had no problem in free hiring, firing, granting wages, or fixing working hours, no obligation of PF, Gratuity or medical aids, but the labour code bill, passed by the Modi government, raises this free ceiling to 300 workers per unit. The reality is very few small units today employ 300 workers, in present day ambience of mechanisation, automation etc. As for working hours, the same labour code bill raised the 8 working hours a day to 12. With that overtime payment calculations have been fixed from first half an hour to 15 minutes and total working hours in a week, has been fixed to 48 hours in total. The last two amendments are meaningless, as poorly paid workers are not going to fight for 15 minutes or 48 hours a week. Organisation or Union activities are totally forbidden in this unorganised sector, as the new Trade Union laws under Modi's new Labour codes, have been made harsher, and even registration of a new Union is next to impossible now by complying with new provisions. Medical care left to Employees State Insurance (ESI) and social or retirement benefits to PF or NPS (National Pen­sion Scheme). In case of ESI or PF, employers often default in mandatory deposit of sums deducted or their own contribution to concerned authorities. To run NPS, is not possible for low paid workers, which is only for white collar employees.

Let alone unorganised workers, even in organised sectors, like Railways, where historic Strike took place in 1974, the situation at present is dismal. All the jobs from maintenance to running, are now given to hired workers through contract firms, which are owned by political leaders or their connections. The running staff are lured by overtime payments, and forced, in other way, to work beyond hours, for the sake of job security or victimisation. This results in highly irregular running, lack of passenger amenities, and frequent accidents, without any accountability. Even in sensitive sectors like Army, the temporary recruitment of Agniveers on temporary basis, engagement, at the risk of safety or security, and in this sector there was no right, now it has been added with no liability.

In big corporate sectors also, be private or public, the current trend is to recruit officers and executives more than workers. These so-called executives, are performing the jobs of clerks or labourers, but being so called 'executives' or say 'managers', they are denied all the minimum rights of workers, and compelled to work beyond duty hours as also on holidays. Another dangerous thing has started which is hiring of fixed period apprentices. Previously Apprentice Act imposed obligation on recruiters to absorb after period of apprenticeship. But now there is no such rule. So these apprentices are extorted, forced to work unlimited hours and also on holidays, to remain in good book of management, for future permanent absorption, which is also uncertain.

A new sector of unorganised sector employment is the Gig workers, meaning the 'Delivery Partners', 'Business Associates', 'operators' etc, engaged in Home Delivery of daily needs, Foods, and Cab or Bike Taxi operators. All these are multinational corporates, having entities almost all over the globe. But they operate only through outsourced call centres, and workmen engaged on contract through agencies, and delivery persons or cab/ taxi drivers are at liberty to choose working hours, whenever they log in through internet module, they are working, and as they log out or leave, they are not working. Choice is theirs but in this hard days of price rise and family maintenance, obviously, they work from dawn to dusk, or from dusk to dawn to make both ends meet. This liberty of working hour choice is thus another hoax.

In this discussion, the traditionally exploiting sectors like Brick Clins, Agriculture, Jute Mills, illegal Mining, Sugar Cane industry labourers, Domestic helps, house maids, where they never heard any concept of working hour, are excluded. So, by far the majority of work force, are in unorganised sector, and for them mostly, any time is working time (like the old Tea Ad : any time is Tea time), and all hour is or can be working hour. In truth this working hour debate is mostly meaningless in India.

The working hour debate was raised by big software and construction giants, deliberately, to create turmoil, to deny the mea­gre existing rights of a diminishing regular workforce. In the Health care or Hospitality sector, the working hours are already eight hours and six days, the hired qualified personnel can be fired any moment, in the excuse of business state, loss or less profit.

On 9th July last, a nation­wide general strike was called by official Trade Unions, in protest against the new Labour Codes, which have been legislated, like Farmers Bill, without consulting or taking into consideration, the stake holders, by brute majority of the ruling party in parliament. Farm Bill could be forced to roll back, in the face of tough resistance by a section of North Indian Farmers, but in case of Labour codes, due to limitations of objective reality, the resistance is yet to take concrete and stiff resistance nation­wide. For one thing Manufacturing Industry in India, is now in a very bad shape. All indig­enous industry, barring a handful few, have downed shutters, and Industry in India, now means, assembly and packaging of components, imported from outside. As these industries, big or small, are highly dependent on market demands in a toughly competitive environment, the fates of both organisations and their workers, are ever volatile. The much hyped, startups, though coming up with expectations, are shutting down with more disappointments. The popular concept of 'work from Home'; today, is nothing but a tactics to evade all law, and exploit with limitless working hours, when, even during 'logged off' sessions, employees have to be on tip and toe for receiving and attending E-mails, notifications and Whatsapp chats.

So, to conclude, this working hour controversy has no relevance to the employment market or employees, in these hard days of per­vading unemployment, uncertainties. It may be a tool for asserting rights of a few white collar, Govt or semi-govt, office workers in organised sectors.

For others, the huge majority, the work place realities, are very much like the classic movie by   all-time   great   Charlie Chaplin, "Modern Times'', where workers are machines by practice, and when work place bosses want to encroach on the Toilet or lunch hours too, lest working hours are lost, and production hampered, and profit lost. But every dark cloud has silver lining, and globalised, privatised capital giants, vastly dependent on technology, are now in a state of market challenge, as they are now in the trap of what Marx analysed as 'over production and diminishing or stagnant market condition'. 

Back to Home Page

Frontier Autumn Number
Vol 58, No. 14 - 17, Sep 28 - Oct 25, 2025